Ethical Issues for School Counselors

The Ethical Issues for School Counselors Ethical issues arise more often for school counselors than for those who work in other settings. The challenge of working not only with minors but also with other stakeholders including parents, teachers, school administrators, and community members sets the stage for potential legal and ethical dilemmas. Awareness and adherence to ethical codes, therefore, is critical if school counselors are to make appropriate, ethical decisions. This article enhances school counselors' knowledge of ethical codes by using actual cases as submitted by school counselors.The issues are presented in a quiz format for further discussion and relate each scenario to particular ethical codes. The school counselor's primary obligation is to the student. This includes advocating for students, defining the role of the counselor, and adjusting work assignments so student’s needs are met. Regular meetings between school counselors and school principals have been touted as effective catalysts towards redirecting assignments that are counterproductive to student needs. It seems apparent that school counselors need viable methods to educate themselves about ethical conduct as well as to educate other stakeholders.Realistic scenarios are often difficult to encounter and might assist in the aforementioned tasks. This article was written to aid school counselors as they seek solutions to ethical dilemmas as well as to provide a nonthreatening format in which to enlighten principals and parents about appropriate responses. This article utilized the American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics (2005) and American School Counselors' Association (ASCA) Ethical Standards for School Counselors (2004) to arrive at answers at the ensuring discussions.While conclusive answers follow scenarios in the cases, the quiz was written to offer an opportunity to evaluate knowledge of current ACA and ASCA codes of ethics and facilitate discussions concernin g other appropriate alternatives. Answers were provided to help school counselors take a proactive rather than reactive stance when similar events occur. The ethical issues described in the article were submitted anonymously by school counselors practicing in the panhandle of Texas. These cases were not solicited; rather, counselors sent them to counselor educators at a local university so they might receive consultation.It is hoped this examination aids school counselors in the creation of proactive future plans when faced with ethical situations. Because no written quiz can offer indisputable answers, additional strategies are need to overcome difficult ethical dilemmas. The quiz can aid counselor educators as they strive to deepen ethical discussions in school counseling courses. As stated in class each person has the right to receive the information and support needed to move toward self-direction and self-development.Each person has the right to understand the full magnitude an d meaning of his/her educational choices and how those choices will affect future opportunities. Special care should be given to students who have historically not received adequate educational services: students of color, low socio-economic students, students with disabilities and student with non-dominant language backgrounds. The Standard G. Maintenance of Standards states that, professional school counselors are obligated to take appropriate action when they see the standards are not being followed.That being said, counselors must have knowledge of codes of ethics as well as local, state, and federal laws; school policies; seek consultation; and stay informed of changes in order to make ethical decisions. Being fully informed helps school counselors be prepared in situations that demand careful judgment and protect the welfare of the children within the school. This quiz and the strategies mentioned previously can be a useful tool in achieving this goal. Reference Froeschle, J. F. Crews, C. C. (2010). An ethics challenge for school counselors. EbscoHosthttp://www. ebsohost. com

Cognitive Approach to Psychology

Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Shane Galvin Class: 061/AT Applied Psychology Teacher: Carol Neenan Title: Psychological Perspective Word count: 3121 The Cognitive Approach to Psychology Contents Page 1 – Contents Page 2 – Introduction Page 3 – History Page 4 – Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science Page 6- Research methods i) iii) v) Reaction time Studies Eye Tracking Studies Psychophysics ii) iv) vi) Priming Studies Lateralisation Studies Single-Cell Studies Page 8 – Memory Storage and Models Page 10 – Therapeutic Applications Page 11 – Evaluation Page 12 – Bibliography Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology The Cognitive Approach to Psychology What is Cognitive Psychology? Literally, ‘Cognition’ means knowing, but in the greater framework of Psychology, Cognition is thinking, perceiving information, understanding, construction and presentation of an answer to a question. Essentially, cognition is a ter m for the use of our mental processes. â€Å"Cognitive Psychology is the study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking. † (Gerrig & Zimbardo. 2002) Cognitive Psychology uses scientific methods and scrutiny to develop a deeper understanding of the human mind, rather than the brain, a methodology perhaps adapted from Behaviourism, in which modern Cognitive Psychology holds its roots. Yet, unlike behaviourism, which only focuses on observable behaviour, Cognitive Psychology is also concerned with internal mental states. 2 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology History In 1932, Behaviourist Edward Tolman published his book â€Å"Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Men† In his works Tolman studied rats in a maze, in which food was placed at the end of the maze.In the initial phase of a test, the rat would not be hungry while first entering the maze; this would allow the rat to learn where the food would be and to associate a certain location with the prospect of food. Of course, being armed with such a primal survival instinct would influence the rat to learn and adapt quickly. The rat would move in the general direction of the food as opposed to a specific pathway and Tolman observed that the rats were able to use untrained routes towards the food.This meant that rats had an ability to learn, beyond mere survival instinct and presented a problem for radical behaviourism. Whether Tolman knew it or not, both he and his rats were laying down the groundwork for modern cognitive psychology. Tolman theorized that the animal had developed an image of its environment that it later used as a reference when finding its food. This is called a â€Å"Cognitive Map† i. e. , the rats showed use of their cognitive map by reaching a goal (food) from a number of different starting points.The rats had no instinctive information of the maze and no stimuli that would condition it to have knowledg e of the maze, in other words; the rats learned about their environment and stored the information. This helped to establish some basis for memory storage, learned behaviour and analytical methodology for Cognitive Psychology and would help Psychologists prepare for the â€Å"Cognitive Revolution† of the 1950’s where Cognitive Psychology and its principle areas of research begin to become defined. 3 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied PsychologyThe Term â€Å"Cognitive Psychology† came into use in 1967 in the book Cognitive Psychology by Neisser. â€Å"†¦ the term cognition refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed , reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used†¦ it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomena is a cognitive phenomena† (Neisser, 1967) Perhaps it was the invention of the computer that gave Cognitive Psychology the most credibility.For t he first time in history, mankind had something to which it could compare with the human brain or mind, and gave the cognitive approach its terminology. By being able to study a simpler artificial construct, psychologists now had the opportunity to learn more about cognitive processes. â€Å"Cognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person (what behaviorists would call stimuli), and how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, they are interested in the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output. (McLeod, 2007) Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science Part of the effect that the cognitive revolution had on its approach is the amalgamation of techniques and ideology’s from other distinct areas of research and study such as linguistics, computer science, developmental psychology and cognitive psychology. It seems as though it is a reaction to the ‘stimulu s-response’ methodology and mode of interpretation espoused by behavioural scientists. Noam Chomsky theorised that the brain had a centre for language acquisition that went beyond what could be explained by behavioural psychology.Jean Piaget had laid out stages of cognitive development that children go through which again could not be explained within the framework of Behaviourism. Computer scientists provided a new way of comparably examining the brain by using computer processing as a method to conceptualise brain processing. â€Å"These scientists maintained their own distinct methodologies†¦ but they held together and remained united in their interest in cognition and in their goal to bring the scientific study of these processes to light. This scientific collective became known as cognitive science† (Solso, et al. 2008) In modern times cognitive science relies on computer science, philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, linguistics and anthropology. Cognitive s cience is heavily influenced by computer science; in computer modelling it is possible to construct and test cognitive models, in the form of artificial intelligence (AI) which has leaked into popular use in the form of interactive technology such as video gaming. 4 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology But it is of particular benefit to psychologists because they can test certain, although limited, cognitive models and theories based on computer models.Cognitive Psychology uses a combination of techniques adapted from other areas of research in order to research its own theories, thus we have an intrinsic relationship between cognitive psychology and other methodologies as illustrated in Gardner’s Hexagon. The diverse range of methodologies in the cognitive approach allows researchers and clinical psychologists to approach problems, issues and hypotheses from a multitude of different backgrounds and allow a wider range of scrutiny to verify their findings in keeping with sc ientific inquiry.Ultimately this allows the cognitive scientist/psychologist to create models of predictive capability that are reproducible which, in Psychology, allows for a greater understanding of the human mind and its mechanisms. 5 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Research Method’s The research methods of cognitive psychology observe and record how we take in information from the physical world, the response time of reactions and how we process this information to perceive it. â€Å"The method’s of cognitive psychology stem from those used by early German researchers studying memory, association and processes.These tools became a mainstay of experimental psychology. As cognitive psychology began to form and become interdisciplinary, methods from other research fields were borrowed and modified for use in the study of cognitive processes. Research methods are the tools by which we come to know and understand, as well as test ideas and develop new ones. â₠¬  (Solso, et al. , 2008) i) Reaction Time Studies: Reaction time studies are used to study cognitive processes and seem to be a defining methodology in the cognitive approach.An example is Donder’s complication studies, in which a subject’s response speed to a white light being turned on was recorded and compared to a yellow light being turned on. Researchers believed early on that the time difference between the two responses could have been attributed to additional processing that it took to differentiate the yellow from the white light. â€Å"Reaction time studies fundamentally rely on the assumption that cognitive activity takes time and that one stage is completed before the other starts. † (Solso, et al. , 2008) ii) Priming studies:Priming studies have been used by psychologists for quite some time. With the invention of computer technology, specifically brain imaging technology, priming studies are becoming more popular. â€Å"In priming studies a stim ulus is briefly presented (a prime) and then, after a delay, a second stimulus is presented and a participant is asked to make some judgement regarding the second stimulus, such as, â€Å"Is the second stimulus the ‘same’ as the first? † (Solso, et al. , 2008) There are two types of priming effects. The Semantic priming Effect and the Object priming effect.The Semantic priming effect is that by activating one item, the acceptability of the second item is enhanced. The Object priming effect is typically in two stages. The first stage is the presentation of an object. This is followed by an interval that may be as short as a millisecond or as long as several months. In the second stage an object similar to the first object is presented, it could be changed, degraded or rotated etc. The participants’ accuracy in remembering the first object is then measured and sometimes the reaction time is measured as well. Tulving & Schacter, 1990) 6 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Ap plied Psychology iii) Eye-Tracking studies: A large portion of the brain is used for interpreting and processing visual sensory information. Researchers have developed techniques to track the movement of eyes in order to determine where a person’s eye is fixed which in particular helps to study people reading, what sentence they are looking at and where they look next. Eye-tracking studies have helped researchers to discover that people who have dyslexia have different eye movements to people who do not have dyslexia. v) Lateralisation Studies Lateralisation studies developed from the idea that the two sides of the brain are responsible for different cognitive functions, in an effort to localise functions within the brain, Broca and Wernicke’s area’s ( centres that are responsible for speech and language) are located on one side of the brain, the left side, this implies that the brain has localised area’s for different functions, these studies were partic ularly important in the area of memory study and studies of amnesiac patients, through the methodology used in lateralisation studies, i. e. riming type tests, and brain imaging we know that the hippocampus is responsible for memory, although there are two hippocampi. There are also more invasive techniques used in lateralisation studies using patients with extreme epilepsy undergoing preventative surgery whereby the corpus collosum, the fibre’s which connect the hemispheres of the brain, are cut. v) Psychophysics Psychophysics is the scientific study of the relationship between stimuli and the sensations and perceptions evoked by these stimuli. (Solso, et al. , 2008) Psychophysicists are interested in perceptual thresholds.For example in Weber’s study of perceptual threshold’s he tested a person’s ability to detect weight. If a person was holding a weighted object, how much weight could be added before the person could detect and perceive the difference in weight. vi) Single-cell Studies Single-cell studies are typically conducted in animals as opposed to humans because of their invasive nature. Hubel & Wiesel, who were awarded a Nobel Prize for their 1959 research, mapped the visual cortex of cats. This research involved the opening of the skull of the subject.They had theorised that because single cells communicate with each other via electrical impulses then it would be possible to probe these single cells with a an extremely fine meter to measure the amount of electrical activity in a cell without damaging it, thereby allowing them to evaluate perceptual experience at a cellular level. Hubel & Wiesel basically restrained a cat , opened its skull, probed it’s brain and then showed the cat 7 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology moving images and kept probing until they could record the level of cellular electrical activity.This gave us an insight into how we visual perceive the world and the physical action that takes pl ace in the brain. (Solso, et al. , 2008) Memory, Storage and Models Cognitive Psychology is viewed as a pure science, its accepted theories on memory, for example, are based on laboratory experiments with demonstrable results as well as solid work in case studies. For example the Multi store Model (MSM) by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968, 1971) cited by (McLeod, 2007) attempted to explain how information is transferred from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory.This model views sensory memory, STM and LTM as â€Å"permanent structural components† and suggests that memory is made up of a series of stores. MSM likens memory as information flowing through a system. Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory. If attended to this information enters the short term memory. Information from the STM is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed. If rehearsal does not occur, then information is forgotten, lost from short term memo ry through the processes of displacement or decay. McLeod, 2007) This model has influenced the study and research of memory and is supported and informed by studies of retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The Working Model of Memory (Baddely & Hitch, 1974), shows that short term memory is more than one store and consists of different components. Similarly, in long term memory different kinds of memory such as addition/subtraction, how to play chess or what we did yesterday are not stored in one ‘hard-drive’ type long term memory store. There are different types of memory, episodic (memory of events), procedural (memory of how to do 8 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology hings) and semantic (general knowledge). This model of memory espouses that rehearsal is the process whereby by we transfer information into Long term memory but that it is not necessary to rehearse in some cases. . We know, now, that the part of the brain that deals with memory is the hippocampus; it i s part of the limbic system and deals with short term memory and long term memory, as well as spatial functions, the hippocampus is shown in this diagram. As we can see, there are hippocampi; there is a hippocampus in both sides of the brain. The hippocampus is part of the cerebral cortex and is located in the medial temporal lobe.Damage to the hippocampus can result in a person being unable to store new memories and is quite devastating to a person’s quality of life. In the case of Clive Wearing, based on Baddely, 1990; Blakemore 1988 as cited in (Gross, 2010), who suffered from anterograde amnesia, we can see the effects of damage to the hippocampus, in this case caused by a rare brain infection caused by the cold sore virus (Herpes Simplex). Mr. Wearing lives almost as if he is frozen in time, constantly believing he has just woken from years of unconscious sleep. He retains developed skills, for example he was the chorus master of the London Sinfonietta.Unfortunately for Mr. Wearing his ability to recall memories from earlier in his life is extremely patchy, at best. Atkinson and Schiffrin regard the kind of memory Deficits displayed by Clive Wearing as ‘perhaps the single most convincing demonstration of a dichotomy in the memory system’ (Gross, 2010) 9 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Therapeutic Applications Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is based on how our thoughts, feelings and behaviour all interact with each other; our thoughts influence our feelings and behaviour.CBT helps the client to develop alternate ways of thinking and behaving in order to reduce psychological distress. Through reflective processes and tasks such as homework, the client’s maladaptive thought process and behaviour is challenged. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a blanket term for different therapeutic interventions that share similar characteristics. Two therapies which form the basis of CBT are Rational Emot ive Behaviour Therapy, developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s, and Cognitive Therapy, developed by Aaron T.Beck in the 1960’s. Beck puts forward the argument that our emotional reactions are essentially a function of how we construe the world. â€Å"Depressed people see themselves as victims, and Beck sees them as victims of their own illogical self-judgements. Beck’s central idea is that depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is dominated by negative schemas. † (Gross, 2010) Beck essentially implies that we interpret our reality by using our cognitive processes and our perception.If our perceptions are skewed because our cognitive processes are maladaptive or our methods of reasoning are incorrect then our emotions and behaviour become distorted from reality. In order to correct emotional or psychological disturbances then we must seek to examine the root of the problem, viewing this through the lens of cognition means that we must correct our thought process in order to correct the symptomatic behavioural and emotional disorder. Beck uses method’s to treat a disorder depending on the disorder that the client suffers from. He stresses the importance of the quality of the relationship between the client and therapist.Beck also places particular emphasis on the client discovering misconceptions for themselves. (McLeod, 2008) Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotional Behavioural Therapy is quite contrasting to Becks method. Ellis Proposes that the therapist should be a teacher and that a warm personal relationship is unnecessary. REBT can also be highly directive, persuasive and confrontational. REBT also uses different methods of approach to a client’s issue depending on the client’s personality. Human cognition can be held responsible for the individual’s successes and accomplishments, according to CBT cognition can also be held responsible for our problems. You are responsible for the outcom e of the situation’ It emphasises control over one’s behaviour and emotions through correcting thought processes. The nature of Cognitive 10 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Psychology/Science allow cognitive theories to be tested in a variety of situations, for example Rimm & Litvak’s 1969 (McLeod, 2008) study shows that When experimental subjects are manipulated into adopting unpleasant assumptions or thought they became more anxious and depressed.Moreover, many people with diagnosed psychological disorders such as anxiety and sexual disorders have been found to display maladaptive thoughts and assumptions, making a case for the effectiveness of CBT. Aaron Beck’s work in researching depression and order disorders in clinical as well as laboratory settings and testing memory and other cognitive functions, and in particular his outcome studies have shown that CBT can be highly effective. CBT is also used in the treatment of drug abuse, bipolar disor der and in patients with cancer, HIV, OCD, PTSD and schizophrenia.It has also been theoretically applied in the treatment of psychopathy. Evaluation/Personal Learning Upon examining the field of Cognitive Psychology, I have learned that cognitive Psychology is adaptive. It evolves with the times and incorporates new technologies, but also has a serious grounding in scientific methodology in order to correctly examine and understand the human mind. Cognitive Psychology is informed by the greater umbrella that is cognitive science. For example it uses information from computer science and neuroscience in order to better understand the cognitive processes that exist in the human brain.Given that the ‘mind’ is not a physical entity; this style of scientific inquiry may be the best approach in understanding it. There is a good scientific framework underlying Cognitive psychology which then allows the Psychologist to move forward and deal with issues presented by the mind. As we can see in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, the therapist approaches the abstract nature of the mind by focusing on the underlying mental hierarchy. That being, Cognition, Emotion, Behaviour, in order to treat symptomatic issues, the therapist using this approach must deal with the thought processes that create these symptoms.The most important lesson that I have learned is that, while the mind is an abstract construct and is quite difficult to quantify, quantifiable information about physical constructs such as the brain and general human biology and chemistry and its influences informs the understanding of the human mind. 11 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Bibliography Baddely, A. & Hitch, G. , 1974. Working Memory. In: G. Bower, ed. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Academic Press, pp. 47-89.Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo. , &. P. G. , 2002. Glossary. [Online] Available at: http://www. apa. org/research/action/glossary. aspx [Accessed 14 November 2012]. Gross, R. , 2010. Psychology The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 6th ed. London: HodderArnold. McLeod, S. , 2007. Atkinson and Shiffrin | Multi Store Model of Memory.. [Online] Available at: http://www. simplypsychology. org/multi-store. html [Accessed 16 November 2012]. McLeod, S. , 2007. http://www. simplypsychology. org/cognitive. html. [Online] Available at: fromhttp://www. implypsychology. org/cognitive-therapy. html [Accessed 10 November 2012]. McLeod, S. , 2008. Simply Psychology, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. [Online] Available at: http://www. simplypsychology. org/cognitive-therapy. html [Accessed 12 November 2012]. Neisser, U. , 1967. Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Solso, R. L. , Maclin, O. H. & Maclin, M. K. , 2008. Cognitive Psychology. 8th ed. Boston: Pearson. Tulving, E. & Schacter, D. L. , 1990. Priming and Human Memory Systems. Science, Volume 247, pp. 301-306. 12

“Point Shirley” by Sylvia Plath Essay

Sylvia Plath is an American writer whose well-known poems are carefully written pieces distinguished for their personal imagery and intense dialogue. Written in 1960, â€Å"Point Shirley† is a poem in which the details are more important than the actual time and place that the events occurred. Sylvia Plath is an American writer whose best-known poems are carefully crafted pieces noted for their personal imagery and intense focus. She was born in Massachusetts in 1932 and began publishing poems and stories as a teenager. By the time she entered Smith College, Plath had won several poetry prizes that led to her becoming a Fulbright Scholar in Cambridge, England. However, on February 11, 1963, Sylvia Plath committed suicide due to problems existing within a troubled marriage. Her novel, The Bell Jar, was first published under her own name in the United States in 1971, despite the protests of her family. Plath’s Collected Poems, published in 1981, won the Pulitzer Prize. Throughout her short life, Plath loved the sea. She spent many of her childhood years on the Atlantic coast just north of Boston. This seascape provides the source for much of her later poetic imagery, among these is â€Å"Point Shirley†. In Sylvia Plath’s â€Å"Point Shirley,† she tries to create a vivid image in the reader’s mind as to what the New England coast looks like. In doing so, she sends a depressing image that helps to set the tone for the next stanza where her grandmother is found dead. In the absence of the grandmother, the sea is slowly breaking down the house. Although the aggressive sea is unable to destroy the house in the grandmother’s presence, it does begin to wear down after the absence of the grandmother sets in. The title of the poem is simply to let the reader know where the story is taking place. However, it is not very important if the exact location of the poem is known, because Plath’s purpose for writing the poem can still be expressed without knowing this. The title does show a hint of what the poem is about, however, because any location name that is preceded by the word â€Å"point† can usually be assumed to be on the beach. The speaker, Sylvia Plath, plays a very important role in the poem as she is writing it about her grandmother. Through the way that she describes the house coping with the brutality of the sea, she is complimenting her grandmother’s stubborn attitude, which Plath had admired. Plath has a loving memory of her grandmother and much of this memory comes from the house. She is almost complaining about the sea removing the memory of her grandmother as time goes on. Throughout the poem, Plath describes the sea in a way that makes it seem alive. The ferocity of the sea seems to be purposefully tearing down the house. This type of personification allows the reader to develop the idea that there is nothing to stop the sea and that, over time, the house and memory of the grandmother will be gone. Sylvia Plath is obviously very upset with the death of her grandmother and is using her poetry to express her feelings about her. She labels her grandmother as stubborn but loving, and does not ever want to forget her. However, as time passes, the memory of the grandmother is fading away along with the house. As a reader, this writer can personally identify with the setting of this poem, as I have grown up on the New England coast. For example, I can relate with the quahog chips mentioned in the first stanza because they covered many of the beaches I frequented as a child. The vivid details used to describe the rough sea reminds me of the many stormy days that I lived on the beach as the waves crashed against the beach. I believe that being able to identify with the setting helps the reader feel the emotion that Plath is trying to express.

British class and gender formation during the nineteenth century Essay

British class and gender formation during the nineteenth century - Essay Example With this underlying premise, it can be argued that the economic conditions during that time due to the Industrial revolution perpetrated the spread of a unique kind of class and gender consciousness. However, it must be noted that this in no way undermines the role and importance of other factors. This argument does not state that the only factor responsible for the changing class and gender consciousness in 19th century England is purely economic in nature. Rather, the economic condition during that period is the most important determinant in class and gender consciousness due to it being inescapable; and because it is inescapable, it became the ground from where the cultural approach—which basically states that English ideologies and rhetoric are more significant in the construction of class and gender identities—sprouted. What the economic condition did was that it aggravated other factors, such as language and rhetoric, and this prompted the â€Å"making of the En glish working class,†1 as well as the â€Å"sexual crisis.†2 This paper will show, through notable writings that aim to explain the Industrial Revolution and the resulting class and gender consciousness through the cultural approach, how the economic factors surrounding these explanations cannot be avoided. These are the evidences that this argument will use in proving the premise that the economic situation at that time is the most important factor as it is both ubiquitous and inescapable. Athough these readings use the cultural approach, they still could not help but highlight the underlying reason for these experiences and rhetoric—and that is, the economic condition of that time, whether in the provinces or cities, became the set that staged the changes in familial and societal relationships. In order to better understand the economic conditions of 19th century England, the Industrial Revolution must be discussed

Unit 4 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unit 4 Discussion Board - Essay Example For this case, they are not distributed in areas that are undesirable but those areas that are desirable. from federal government. In United States, the healthcare industry is one of the heavily regulated industries. According to Cato Institute study, they noted that there is a total cost of $340 billions on health care by the public whereas due to regulatory, there is a benefit amounting to $170 billions. The difference in the cost arises from facilities regulations, FDA regulations and medical malpractice. The technicians who have not attained a medical degree are not allowed to perform any diagnostic and treatment procedures that carry any risk thereby the cost of healthcare provision goes up. The government too has no financial incentives that can bargain with healthcare providers hence they bid up healthcare cost. (Cunningham and May, 2006) Other non financial resources provided by the federal government in the healthcare industry are facilitation of development of new drugs and pharmaceuticals. The food and drug administration too play a great role in the pharmaceutical industry. They offer a central regulatory role by overseeing production and marketing of drugs and pharmaceuticals besides setting of prices or other economical or financial role. Development in the healthcare industry in United States can also be seen to have advanced whereby there is specialization in treatment. For example there is a big difference between osteopathic and allopathic medicine. Osteopathic is seen as a treatments of involving correction of the position of joints and tissues and for their cases, they emphasizes on diet and environmental factors that can destroy natural resistance. On the other hand Allopathic medicine is whereby a physician is seen as an active intervention who attempt to treatment that produces counteracting

The Impact of Health Inequalities on Health Education and Health Essay

The Impact of Health Inequalities on Health Education and Health Promotion - Essay Example dren in developing countries (Guerrant, Kirchhoff, Shields, Nations, Leslie, de Sousa, Araujo, Correia, Sauer, McClelland, Trowbridge and Hughes, 1983). Due to these disparities in the economies of developed and underdeveloped nations, there are a lot of discrepancies in the health standards of the people of these countries as well. Health inequalities refer to gaps in the quality of health and health care across sexual orientation, racial, socioeconomic and ethnic groups. A marked difference can be seen between the health conditions of developed and underdeveloped countries. The better the economy of a country, the better is the state of health. Health disparities exist between differing socioeconomic groups. The lower socioeconomic group have poorer health and higher rates of chronic illness, obesity, hypertension and diabetes. Differences also lie in access to health care between the two classes. Usually people in deprived areas receive less care than needed. Whereas the affluent areas have easy access to almost all kinds of medication and health care. Within a country, we can also see difference in the health standards between different racial groups. For example; in America, Latinos, Asian Americans, Native Americans and African Americans have higher mortality, higher rate of chronic disease and poorer overall health conditions. There is a need to change life styles of people to help them live a better and healthy life. This could be achieved through health promotions and educating them about health issues. Health promotion enables people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. It moves beyond a focus on individual behaviour towards a wide range of social and environmental intervention (WHO, 2011). Health promotion aims at influencing, informing,... This paper approves that health care costs are continuously arising, resulting the government, employers and consumers to struggle to keep up with the increased costs. Major policy of the health care units is to cut off the costs. Rising federal deficit with an overall slowdown in the economic growth is also putting strain on the systems used to finance the health care. Things are made more complicated by the health disparities within the nation. The health care units have to divide their funds for improving the conditions in the rural areas and conducting health awareness programmes for them, and for research purposes. This essay shows that government plays an important role in providing awareness regarding how to stay healthy and solving health related issues. Government have the power of financing, organizing, overseeing, and delivering health care. Government is also responsible for getting care to people who wouldn't otherwise have it; the underprivileged, the disabled, and the aged, many of whom could not afford it on their own. The government's role in health and health care does not end here but it goes into the realm of encouraging new discoveries related to health affairs There are some Government Organizations like U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps which are working to promote, protect, and advance the health and safety of the United States. Members of PHS often serve on the frontlines in fighting diseases and poor health conditions. They are trained and equipped to respond to emergencies such as natural disasters or terrorist attacks and public health crisis.

International Purchasing and Supply-Chain Management Essay - 1

International Purchasing and Supply-Chain Management - Essay Example The company is acclaimed for maintaining the highest inventory turnover, the highest sales per square foot and the highest operating profit margin in the retail industry since the last ten years. The transition of Wal-Mart from being a local retailer to a global retail giant has been largely driven by the unique and excellent supply chain management of the company. Wal-Mart has implemented a low cost strategy in its business and makes profit through large volume sales. The company is characterized by advanced inventory management systems, aggressive pricing policies, a unique retail and supply chain distribution system and has needed very less promotion and advertising in its journey to become one of the biggest private companies in the world. Wal-Mart is a retailing giant famous for its innovative business practices and is one of the first businesses to implement a centralized distribution system. The company has been renowned for continually integrating the latest technologies into its supply chain processes. Discussion The efficient supply chain management system of Wal-Mart is a major driver for the success of the company as a leading retail giant. The supply chain model of the business is formed by the effective integration of the purchasing, manufacturing, warehousing and distributing processes (Lysons and Farrington 2005, p.90). The supply chain of Wal-Mart implements four main strategies: technology, cross docking, vendor partnerships and distribution management and integration. Wal-Mart operates both retail outlets and distribution centres constitute its supply chain network. The supply chain of Wal-Mart comprises of 95 Distribution facilities and around 1500 stores operating all across the world. The distribution centres hold different types of merchandising goods varying from eatables to clothing and accessories. Procurement and Distribution The supply chain of Wal-Mart starts with the process of strategic sourcing to identify the proper suppliers wh o can provide the products at the best possible prices and can meet the huge demand level of the retail giant. Wal-Mart has entered into strategic collaborations with a major number of suppliers and has guaranteed sourcing products at lowest possible expenses by providing the suppliers with opportunity for high volume sales over a long period of time (Martin, 2006, p.156). The company maintains a strong logistics network comprising of the largest employee base for fleet of private trucks consisting of around 8000 drivers who were involved in the delivery of the goods from the distribution centres to the stores of Wal-Mart. The distribution centres of Wal-Mart comprised of general merchandise, as well as food and clothing distribution centres. The products are picked up from the warehouse of the suppliers by the trucking division of Wal-Mart and then transported to the distribution centres of Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart has formulated standardized labelling and consignment sizes to ensure tha t the shipments were easily transferred across the distribution centres. The consignments are cross docked to the inbound trailers. The supply chain follows a uniform operating and distribution process throughout its supply chain. Each of these distribution centres are designed in a way to provide maximum support to the stores with similar kinds of merchandise being stacked together Hub and Spoke Design The establishment of Wal-Mart’s stores was directly driven by the distribution strategies of the business. The opening of the first distribution centre of the business was a significant investment strategy of the company and was aimed at attaining economies of scale. So the location of the stores was selected such that the distance could be covered within one

The main causes of slavery and solution to the problem of slavery Essay

The main causes of slavery and solution to the problem of slavery - Essay Example The present research has identified that before Abraham Lincoln’s election into office, United States was a haven of peace and stability. There was no race, ethnicity or any form of social diversification. All people were equal, and no region north or south was superior to the other. Concealment by the governing departments offered an incredibly fertile environment for the growth of slavery. Heads of government, including the secretary of state who should be on the frontage of protecting all persons, concealed all information regarding the growth of slavery and civil wars in the country. The information was censured to meet a predetermined objective which was to cover up for slavery and the lords of the civil wars. The irony of these problems is that everyone knew about the problem apart from the heads of governments. This is a clear indication that the head of government had undisclosed interest. The civil wars and the rebellions that have been witnessed between the northern and the southern people are politically motivated. This is because of the disunity that has been created between the northern and the southern. The southern politicians are disappointed by the northern abolitionist since they feel that they are not handling slavery and civil wars in the right manner. The politicians are inciting their subjects by providing for them ammunition. The politicians have continued taking most of the positions and resources to be their own sources of wealth. The common citizens are the victims of wars and slavery while the politicians are the beneficiaries in both the southern and the northern regions. Most of the powers of the country were accorded to few individuals. The individuals decided how, who, when, and why things are done. Their decisions are final and irrevocable even at the courts of law.

Waitrose Strategic Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Waitrose Strategic Analysis - Essay Example Integrity and transparency is also found to be crucial in the strategic planning of Waitrose. The vision of Waitrose in implementing its strategic operations is concentrated on generating value for its employees and also for its other stakeholders by rendering due significance to transparency and integrity in its business operations. In its vision statement, the company also states that employees are treated to be the owners of Waitrose where due consideration is provided towards their inclusion in the decision making process (Waitrose, 2013). In its mission statement, Waitrose further emphasises to create a difference by rendering quality assurance to its customers generating greater brand value in its targeted market. In its mission, the company also intends to work in partnership with large brands in the industry. To be precise, creating a healthy competitive environment and through better resource allocation, the company intends to deliver its services to its customers through effective pricing which secures its organisational interests as well as the interests of its stakeholders (Waitrose, 2013). Waitrose, 2013. The Waitrose Difference. About Waitrose. [Online] Available at: http://www.waitrose.com/content/waitrose/en/home/about_waitrose/our_company/the_waitrose_difference.html [Accessed March 04,

Segmentation, targeting and positioning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Segmentation, targeting and positioning - Essay Example Changes in fashion and consumer behavior have also been influential (Key Note 2012). Such factors have influenced market trends and consumer behavior spectrum. These challenges are still prevailing in the market where brands are preparing to meet them in the coming years of time (Key Note 2012). In sports footwear, the market has remained stagnant as experts and trainers have preferred the same old trend of quality and functioning despite new fashion trend and labeled marketing. This has maintained the position of UK’s sports brands as they have been emphasizing on the old market trends and have remained stable on reliability and sustenance attributes. One of the reasons for holding strong market position in sportswear is that brands â€Å"Nike†, â€Å"Reebok†, and â€Å"Adidas† have been firm on understanding consumer satisfaction (Key Note 2012). They have understood what customers want and what their preferences are on premium shoe wear collections. Mea nwhile, the market is showing decent customer response in the recent time which means that it holds a great place for upcoming brands in the UK footwear segment (Key Note 2012). This report is going to analyze the position of UK footwear market, where the aim is to evaluate UK brands in terms of their marketing strategies. The first part (overview) will access UK footwear companies in terms of marketing tactics (segmentation and positioning), and second part (conclusion) will comprise a relationship between findings and evaluation (Vieceli and Valos 1998). Marketing Concepts Market Segmentation â€Å"Segmentation is a process of market dissection, which means dividing the market into segments and in positions where market holds the greatest opportunity for a respective brand, its products and services† (Vieceli and Valos 1998). The concept relates to division of market in respect of customer behaviors, perceptions and opinions. This is one promotional process that finds a sta rting way for a brand to generate its demand in terms of the values from the consumers (Vieceli and Valos, 1998, pp.137). Market Targeting and Positioning Targeting and positioning are further parts of market segmentation process. They are close to promotion of a brand and are leading processes to stabilize the position of the brand in a new market place. Targeting is the secondary process which is headed on once segmentation gets completed. The targeting process identifies the place of a brand within the pre-identified market segments and positioning is what grapples the place of a brand’s products within the preset target market. By completing segmentation and positioning, the company adjusts its place in a new target market and this is for the long term basis (Cant, Strydom and Jooste 2009). Overview of UK Footwear Market Here is the overview of UK footwear market, which is to analyze the position of the footwear industry in the UK market segment. The analyses will evaluat e the brands in terms of their marketing strategies (segmentation, targeting, positioning) in order to see how the brands place their products in terms of UK footwear customer (Vieceli and Valos 1998). UK is the place of diversity, a place where consumers are on changing market trends. Whether it is cloth wear or shoe wear, all segments are varying and with modifying market trends. In footwear, the loyalty stands for diversified shoe brands. The brands which are unique in designs

How Does Steinbeck Presents Curleys Wife in of Mice and Men Essay Example for Free

How Does Steinbeck Presents Curleys Wife in of Mice and Men Essay Curley’s wife is a significant personality in the novel. John Steinbeck presents her in different ways during the novel and uses different methods to influence the reader’s judgement, for instance through her look, as she is a complex character. Significantly Steinbeck makes it clear that nurture turns her into the person she is in the novel, her nature is different. He uses language to show us who she is as revealed by colour and light symbolism; incongruity of her appearance and the setting; simile. For the majority of the book she is labelled in a negative way as a treacherous, kittenish character which could be interpreted as a replication of the way civilization observed the character of women in the novel. Sometimes, Steinbeck includes thoughts denouncing Curley’s wife. He also points out some of her good qualities. Due to this, readers can interpret for themselves if Steinbeck thinks highly of her, or if he does not like her. Nevertheless later in the book Steinbeck deploys the reader into seeing her as complex, and feeling consideration for Curley’s wife; revealing her as a victim, anxious and secluded in a man’s world. Although he may go back and forth on Curley’s wife, in the end, Steinbeck is mainly condemning her. Steinbeck explores her as attractive towards man through her beauty and an attention seeker. In the passage the first words that Steinbeck uses are that â€Å"Both men glanced up,† and through this we are introduced to Curley’s wife through her effect on men and not through any notion of herself, which Steinbeck does to show us she is only worthy for the use of men. The word glanced up shows that she want men to look at her for she is has the beauty of an actress. Not extended moment when Steinbeck exaggerates â€Å"the rectangle of sunshine in the doorway way cut off. † Here, Steinbeck uses the light symbolically to highlight how imposing she is and present the idea that she is the obstacle to a better life. The image of Curley’s wife casting a shadow across the bunkhouse hints at trouble to come later in the novel. It soon becomes apparent that Curley’s wife is an outsider of the group when it states, â€Å"A girl was standing there looking in,† hence is a metaphor for the segregation she senses. It could be insightful of the gender roles at the time; women were only desired for men’s erotic desires rather than their company. One could also deduce it as how likewise to a ‘girl’, (which she ironically is no longer), she is in search of thoughtfulness and requires all eyes to be on her by standing in the sight of the whole world and might be realised as attempting to listen in on their conversation – both very juvenile schemes. Therefore Steinbeck presents Curley’s Wife in â€Å"Of Mice and Men† as someone who is very eye-catching and courtesy inquirer. On the other hand, he portrays her as isolated and discriminated by men as she is excluded for being female, which sometimes lead to violence. This is illustrated when she is called ‘tart’, ‘jailbait’, and ‘bitch’ by the men on the ranch; henceforth the ranch is a very hostile and misogynistic place. Curley’s Wife is an outsider and seems very out of place. She is frequently found in examine for companionship on the ranch as her recently found marriage does not give her the warmth she desires, as she states to Lennie â€Å"I don’t like Curley he aint a nice fella,† and due to this she often tries to cooperate with the other men although she is never allowed as they think a â€Å"ranch aint no place for a girl. † Carlson also states of how a â€Å"women should be at home where she belongs. † The fact that she is excluded from a place of physical work is symptomatic of how women were exposed during the 1930’s. They were not predictable to do work, but in its place stay at home and raise a family. Curley’ wife feels apprehensive because of the solitude she feels and it is made clear she is exasperated with this condition, â€Å"none of them care how I gotta live. † Nonetheless, the reader is presented with a side to an apparently playful and occasionally vindictive character. In chapter 5, Steinbeck permits Curley’s Wife’s character to eloquent emotions of loneliness, â€Å"I get lonely† and â€Å"I get awful lonely†. The use of repetition is used to give emphasis to the remoteness and frustration of not being able to talk to â€Å"nobody but Curley†, her hindrance which incessantly exteriors as she speaks to Lennie. Moreover, for the period of the scene Steinbeck describes as such â€Å"And then her words tumbled out in a passion of communication, as though she hurried before her listener could be taken away†. The word â€Å"tumbled† recommends her frantic need to communicate to people, at the same time as the expression â€Å"passion† demonstrates her authority and strength needed to interconnect. Yet, what is predominantly conspicuous is she is used to people walking away from her when she speaks, this generates such consideration for her. In this chapter she is also presented as a moderate and approachable character, as Steinbeck describes â€Å"she consoled him. ‘Don’t you worry any’ [†¦] she moved closer to him and spoke soothingly. † The fact that she spoke â€Å"soothingly† suggests that she has a kind nature, and asked in a maternal way when Lennie needed such gentleness. The reader can then relate this sudden behaviour transformation and her upcoming, but the syrupiness she bounces off blurs the reader’s sight to floral it. All the way through the novel as similar to Crooks, Curley’s Wife is not named. This highlights her lack of identity on the ranch and how she is viewed as the property of her husband as well as the word â€Å"live† indicates that she also is a living human being who wants to fulfil her dreams and desires but it would be impossible for her. As a result of her insecurities, she tries to combat her loneliness and sequestration by resorting to violence. Her vicious attacks on Crooks to getting him â€Å"strung up on a tree† and the attacks on Lennie due to his mental disability show how loneliness can not only change a person, but destroy them. All of the emotions Curley’s Wife encounters come as a result of the loneliness she feels, and these clearly represent of what a terrifying character she is. Therefore Steinbeck describes Curley’s wife as isolated and discriminate due to her gender of a female throughout the novel. Equally, at the end of the novel, she is presented as innocent and purified from all the trouble through the description of her appearance. This can be seen in chapter 6 when Steinbeck explains â€Å"Curleys wife lay with a half-covering of yellow hay. And the meanness and the plannings and the discontent and the ache for attention were all gone from her face. She was very pretty and simple, and her face was sweet and young. Now her rouged cheeks and her reddened lips made her seem alive and sleeping very lightly. The curls, tiny little sausages, were spread on the hay behind her head, and her lips were parted. As happens sometimes, a moment settled and hovered and remained for much more than a moment. And sound stopped and movement stopped for much, much more than a moment. † From this passage, the reader can acknowledge the real Curley’s wife but at the same time feel sorry for her as her dream was unfulfilled. The phrase â€Å"meanness ( ) plannings (†¦) discontent (†¦) were all gone from her face† shows that she is no longer vicious and dangerous as all the negativity vanished. Most importantly the phrase â€Å"roughed cheeks and reddened lips† conveys that her dream is unfulfilled and the repetition of â€Å"stopped† to emphasise stillness and the feelings of time standing still. Therefore Steinbeck does not present her as a negative character, but at the time of her death he shows the reader the real her as it was not her nature but nurture that made her what she was. In contrast Curley’s Wife at first is portrayed as a revolting unpleasant woman. Curley’s Wife is described by Steinbeck many times as â€Å"roughed lips and wide-spaced eyes. Her fingernails were red. † this causes the reader to think of her as he says so. Nonetheless, despite these brutal views of her, the reader is presented with a side to a seemingly flirtatious and sometimes malevolent character. The repetition of the colour â€Å"red† denotes the fact that she is very dangerous and cause lot of trouble as the colour red is frequently associated to blood and murder which foreshadows the scenes later on in the novel. An alternative interpretation could be that red is also represent as the colour of love and she is wanting to be love, but many readers would link it to her actress personality as most actress love to dress a lot. Not so long, Steinbeck describes her hair as â€Å"her hair hung in little rolled clusters, like sausages,† and this simile shocks the reader because sausages are disliked and filthy, so linking it to her means that she is also disliked. Furthermore as sausages do not match with hair, the same way she is not suitable for a place like the ranch. Therefore Steinbeck portrays Curley’s wife as a woman who is dangerous and disliked by linking her with words that supports the point. John Steinbeck points out many flaws in Curley’s wife. For example, he does this when he writes, â€Å"she leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward† (Page 51). In this statement, Steinbeck is pointing out that Curley’s wife always tries to instigate something. He also describes her body image and how provocative she is, always looking for attention. Steinbeck says many more things to condemn Curley’s wife, but that is not all that he says about her. Steinbeck also defends Curley’s wife. He writes of how lonely she is, and describes her as innocent as the rabbits and puppy killed by another character, Lennie. For instance, Curley’s wife says, â€Å"Think I don’t want to talk to somebody ever’ once in a while? Think I like to stick in that house alla time? †(Page 77). In this statement, Curley’s wife implies that she is tired of being lonely and wants to talk to other people. As much as Steinbeck appears to flip-flop on his view of Curley’s wife, readers can draw different conclusions.

Nature versus nurture Essay Example for Free

Nature versus nurture Essay In the field of psychology there is a large controversy on whether nature or nurture affect who we are or who we will become. Those who favor nature will argue that our intelligence, personality traits and capacity to achieve goals are largely influenced by genetics. On the other side, people who put forward the idea of nurture will say that it is the environment we live in that shapes who we become. According to John Watson, a strong psychologist who proposed environmental learning as a dominating side, he can be able to train a baby randomly chosen in a group of 12 infants, to become any type of specialist he wants. As of now, we know that both nature and nurture play important parts in molding an individual; however, environmental factors are the real origins of our behavior. There are many examples that can be given to support Watson’s behavioristic views and theories. For instance, identical twins have very remarkable similarities; however when raised in two completely different environments, for example how accessible resources are to each of them, private school versus public school, cause several differences in the way they think and behave. Also, how well a parent takes care of his child and how safe the environment surrounding the family is, affects the child’s behavior and decision-making skills. Also, often children who have been raised in a stable and safe environment, with lots of affection from their parents will have a better chance at handling situations and adapting faster to drastic changes than a child who lacked affection and sense of comfort throughout his whole life. In the end, it is a fact that we have traits that are predetermined by our genes, but we can still choose who we want to be through our lifetime by controlling the environment that surrounds each of us.

Science field trips | Teaching

Science field trips | Teaching Introduction For several years, many science concepts have been accepted and included into the curriculum, however more often than not these concepts are incorporated as a division of topics within a specific discipline. For example, specialty science courses like environmental biology, environmental chemistry, environmental physics, and environmental geology. Field trips to local spots of interest can be an educational and enlightening component of a science course. In spite of the complexity of arranging these and creating them into the course curriculum, they should be strongly measured. Plan field trips in advance so that the time is used efficiently. For example, if a visit to the local zoo is considered, give students some initial worksheets on animal behaviour while they are there. A visit to a local water resource, information about environment and flora and fauna should come first and follow the trip. Procedures for environment assessment are available from many sources, including the local department of natural resources, the local EPA office, or other professionals like the scenic rivers coordinator in your state. However the acceptance of science teachers on the use or the incorporation of science fieldtrips in the curriculum has been put in question. Some teachers are hesitant to conduct fieldtrips for various different reasons. Their attitude and behaviour towards this well accepted practice varies from training to a personal judge of their capacity. A study regarding the effect of training on urban science teachers perspective on the educational potential of science fieldtrips had been conceptualized to address the trend and its implication to the academe. Review of Literature The quality of learning that students acquire and the degree of experience that students have from their educational activities depend greatly on their teachers. The National Standards for Science Education has incorporated a detailed parameter for teachers and teacher preparation programs that will assist in advancing science literacy in their students. There are a very limited number of researches published that evaluates teachers opinions with regards to taking their students to natural environments such as museums to learn. The research proposes that teachers give importance to outside learning experiences but also report disincentives and significant institutional roadblocks that stand in their way. This review of studies and literatures will discuss how teachers are motivated by this other form of teaching environment and teaching mechanism. Insight from studies in the last thirty years as to what factors facilitate the learning experience for school field trips were discussed (Bitgood, 1989; Price Hein, 1991; Griffin, 1998). Falk and Dierking (1992) discuss perceptions that John Falk and associates have gained from their various studies involving field trips. They said that children begin a field trip with two programmes. The first programme is child-centered and focuses on what students imagine they will be doing: seeing exhibits; having fun travelling there; buying gift shop items; and having a day off from their normal school routine. The second programme communicates to the schools and museums expectations. These programmes are that they assume they will learn things and be meeting people who work at the museum. Field trips are undertaken with a particular reason. These purposes vary. Griffin (1998) did a study involving school excursions to museums in Sydney Australia, and found teachers stated disagreeing purposes for going on field trips. Some of the teachers viewed the field trip as a change of tempo for students and a social experience. Some teachers formulated learning oriented objectives pertaining to the curriculum presented to them. Griffin found that teachers explicit and implicit purposes may differ. There are teachers who wishes to incorporate social interaction and enrichment of previously discussed or presented topics therefore resolve the field trip in highly educated manner in which their knowledge and skills will be further enhanced. She suggests that teachers may react in this manner because they are uncomfortable with their capacity to manage their students in an unfamiliar environment. She feels that teachers are perhaps ignorant of, or unable to understand many of the pr inciples of learning in informal environments, such as learning through play and direct involvement with phenomena. In addition, she found that the teachers purpose for the field trip influences the students rationale for the visit. Therefore it can be said that students attitudes tend to mirror the teachers attitude (Griffin, 1998; Griffin Symington, 1980). Research studies by Gottfried (1980) and others support the idea that teachers view field trips as enrichment experiences (Gottfried, 1980; Brigham Robinson, 1992; Griffin, 1998). With this given analysis it presupposes that fieldtrips appeal to the educating world as means of escape to a usual habit or pattern. Sometimes it holds true that teachers are not sure of how to facilitate a learning environment outside the four corners of the classroom. As observed some may let the students wander off to the new environment without making any further information on what is seen and observed in the environment to where the educational fieldtrip is conducted. The author was quick to assume that teachers attitudes and motivation to adapt a science fieldtrip in the curriculum relies on their outlook of how they will perform or how prepared they are to facilitated and head the said trips. The accountability is overwhelming for teachers in the eyes of the author. In this case I presume that the author knows the essence or the importance of the teachers readiness to hold such responsibility in being motivated to include a science fieldtrip in their curriculum. Connections between Informal Science Sites and Schools In recent times, there has been a growing interest in the development of relationships between informal science sites and schools. This is conceptualized to the detection that informal education sites have the potential to offer more than a one-time field trip to teachers and students. According to Ramey-Gassert (1997), science fieldtrips has many potential benefits. These include improving motivation and attitudes, interactive participation, and fostering curiosity. In itself this may be reason enough for teachers to be interested in promoting connections between schools and informal education sites. In a sense, fieldtrips may encourage students to actively take part in the study. In fact the application of what is taught at school may be seen and experienced firsthand during fieldtrips. Having done so, teachers may use this to stir students curiosity and further encourage them to find means to improve or develop what they have seen. Technology is best taught if the application is seen and viewed by the students. Michie (1998) found that the environment of informal science learning, which incorporated features such as voluntary, unstructured, non-assessed, open-ended, and learner-centered (p. 248) led to heightened student interest. This open-ended learning experience can also have optimistic effects on how students feel about science learning. (Gottfried, 1980). While the most beneficial facet of informal science learning may be the often incalculable notions of appreciation and motivation for further learning, researchers have also reported gains in content knowledge by students (Gottfried, 1980; Fiso, 1982; Munley, 1991). The freedom to manipulate, operate and explore the learning environment makes learning highly conducive and interesting. This attitude may be encouraged to further stress a point or a concept. Teachers may utilize this to explore the students perception and opinion regarding a particular topic. Teachers may very well plan a curriculum under which interactive participation may be facilitated. Most importantly, informal science sites can offer teachers and students something which they often cannot experience in the formal classroom. Mullins (1998) illustrates the experience this way: it is precisely because informal science sites are informal learning settings, where attendance is voluntary. In an informal science sites, the visitor is at liberty to wander at will, taking in things that connect to previous knowledge and experience, and discovering new ideas with pleasure (p.42). The appeal of fieldtrips to students is not confound to it being compulsory and rigid. In fact as previously mentioned the idea that this environment is less strict and more open has its appeal to students more and more interesting. However, before teachers aspire to make schools more like an informal science sites, it is important to understand the inherent differences between schools and informal science sites. Despite doing a similar activity as with the classroom as students in an informal environment, there are important disparities between the assumptions that are made as the teaching/learning is taking place. Informal learning stands separately from school learning in that it is free-choice, non-sequential, self-paced, and voluntary. The formal education system was not designed in this way. Schools are designed to teach students so that they are equipped to function successfully in society. The learning requirements are set as standards that all students are expected to learn. The teaching and learning that most often occurs in schools involves obligatory learning in which learning is focused by a programmed set of requirements imposed externally by a forced authority (Falk, 2001). Unfortunately, as Falk and Dierking (1992) point out, learning has become tantamount with the words education and school where learning is perceived as primarily the attainment of new ideas, facts, or information, rather than the consolidation and slow, incremental growth of existing ideas and information (p. 98). Recognizing these disparities is vital to understanding how each approach and their associated fundamental assumptions are part of the whole learning experience for students and teachers. Instead of trying to make one institution be like the other, a suitable approach may be to recognize the strengths of both informal sciences sites and schools and to bring those resources together to better serve both teachers and students. Anderson (2004) points out that the informal and formal education communities are pursuing the same goal of educating the public even if it originates from different assumptions and inherent qualities. One way that informal science sites can contribute to this objective is by helping teachers to gain assurance in teaching science. Science teaching assurance, or science teaching self-efficacy, is an essential component of effective science teaching. Teacher effectiveness has been found to be one of the most important factors influencing teachers work (Bitgood, 1993; Lessow, 1990) and is an important factor in teacher motivation. Horizon Research, Inc. (2001a) reported that long-term association with an informal science sites can begin to shift a teachers confidence in science teaching. For example, one teacher in their study reports, This museum has done a lot for the individual teacher. I think many of us have undergone a long-term change in our teaching style, and are more confiden t and comfortable in a student-centered teaching approach (p.16). Price and Hein (1991) assures that gains in science assurance and enthusiasm by elementary school teachers after they were engaged in collaborative projects with an informal science sites. According to a national survey which appeared in 2001, only approximately 25 percent of elementary teachers feel they are well qualified to teach science (Horizon Research, 2001a). Furthermore, teachers will normally avoid situations where they qualm their ability to perform successfully. Improving elementary teachers science teaching confidence is therefore an imperative factor in the development of science education. As results of this recognition of the advantages of informal science learning, an increasing number of universities are collaborating with informal science sites in preparing their future teachers. Muse, et.al (1982) describes the many benefits includes the chance to work with children of different ages and backgrounds, the chance to work with other teachers, the chance to practice good science teaching and gain assurance, and the knowledge of science teaching resources. Across all of these partnerships, the specific strengths of the informal sites are acknowledgement and brought into the training of future teachers. As suggested by a university professor, in addition to the benefits of a unique kind of teaching and learning that occurs in informal environments, research also advocates teachers can benefit from the resources and programs offered by informal science sites. This can include interactive exhibits, educational materials and science equipment that many teachers and school districts cannot afford or do not have access to in school (Rennie, 1995). Teachers who not using Informal Science Horizon Research Inc. (2001a) established that there is nearly one informal science education institution for every 1,000 elementary school teachers in the United States. Yet these institutions serve only 10 percent of all U.S. teachers teaching science. While there has been a changing focus to heightened the numbers of these relationships with teachers, many teachers do not seem to be using museum resources in partnering ways where unambiguous links are made to classroom curricula and teachers return for additional assistance and partnership as needed throughout the school year. The literature on this subject revolves around the assumption that using informal science actually pertains to taking field trips. These studies do not openly concentrate on those teachers who continually use informal science sites in many different ways. Nonetheless, these studies show why teachers may not be as likely to take their students on field trips as other teachers. Explanations for why teachers are not taking field trips can be arranged into several categories. Logistics: transportation coordination and cost (Lessow, 1990; Michie, 1998; Price and Hein, 1991), safety concerns (Michie, 1998); and student misbehaviour and large class size (Fido and Gayford, 1982; Lessow, 1990; Price and Hein, 1991) External Support System: a lack of support from the government who see the field trip as a vacation (Michie, 1998; Mullins, 1998; Price and Hein, 1991); and a lack of support from other teachers who are uncomfortable with new experiences and getting out of the classroom (Michie, 1998; Mullins, 1998) Personal Motivation: such as fear of failure (Mullins, 1998), lack of energy and time (Lessow, 1990; Michie, 1998; Mullins, 1998; Price and Hein, 1991) low interest (Mullins, 1998); and lack of personal knowledge of and positive experiences with informal science sites (Fido and Gayford, 1982; Michie, 1998) Availability of Resources: inadequate choice of informal science sites (Michie, 1998) Orion (1993) points out that many of the complications involved in linking informal science institutions and the formal education system can be addressed to differences in size, orientation, and mission. Informal science sites tend to be smaller than school systems, are profit oriented and are mostly private. Ramey-Gasset (1996) asserts that these obvious differences can make associations very difficult to attain. While both classroom teachers and informal science sites educators have the similar Objectives of educating students, they approach it from very different outlooks. Schools and informal science sites have not viewed themselves as equal partners; asserting that each feels that they are performing different things in terms of science education, and one does not necessarily complement the other. There is also a common view of informal science educators as pseudo-educators. Claiming that museum educators practice some of the best teaching in a community may not be entirely correct and may overestimate the teaching proficiency of these teachers (Munley, 1991, p. 14). While many informal science sites educators are superior teachers, many do not have the experience or training to serve as model teachers. For this truth, many school administrators and teachers may not view the informal community as a competent partner in science education. However, this may change. Creating standards for informal science educators has the impending to positively impact future partnership between the informal science community and schools. Factors Influencing Teachers to take Field Trips The focal point of this research is on teachers who use the resources of informal science on a regular basis. This subject appears to be focused on the actual field trip and not on using informal science resources in different ways and on a regular basis. There are numerous studies that address this concern of the factors influencing teachers to take field trips. Lessow (1990) surveyed 585 teachers on their use of informal science and used quantitative analysis to settle on the possible correlations between teacher quality and use of informal science. Some of his major findings were that teachers took more field trips when they had taken personal trips to a particular site felt that their students gained either cognitively or affectively. Lessow (1990) did not find that those teachers who assumed having a science related hobby, read science journals or attended more professional development took more field trips. And those teachers with more experience teaching also did not take more trips than other teachers. While this study had some interesting findings, it did not disclose the nature of these trips or teachers personal thoughts on taking them. While Lessow (1990) addressed the efficiency of the field trips, this was determined primarily through survey answers and focused around the use of pre-visit and post-visit activities. Therefore, ho w these teachers used these sites was not revealed. Michie (1998) interviewed 28 secondary science teachers in Australia to determine the influences on them to organize and conduct field trips. It was found that teachers who took field trips wanted to give students hands-on, real life experiences which they could not have in the classroom. He also said that while there was some perplexity on the usefulness of field trips, most teachers accepted the cognitive gains associated with the trips. There were some teachers who commented on the emotional values. In addition, six more experienced teachers elementary teacher to college professors were chosen for follow-up interviews. These expert teachers reported that they conducted field trips for three reasons. The first was because of the positive benefits they and their students receive in reference to the relationships that developed among students, between students and teachers, and between students and informal educators. Mullins (1998) reported that these relationships raised confidence , invigorated lives and enhanced their questioning and learning (Mullins, 1998, p. 165). The second reason these teachers chose to take these outdoor trips was that they acknowledged that their thinking on how learning takes place had changed after engaging in these environmentally based trips. They realized the worth of interactive learning and project-based learning where the students were involved in real-life projects. The third reason was simply because of the experiential benefits. They said that nature taught them how to teach; and that observing students attach with nature was their main purpose for having field trips. This study also reported that most of the experienced teachers all had positive field experiences as children. While the literature concerning the factors motivating teachers to take field trips is informative, there is the absence of a clear picture of teachers who choose to frequently use the resources of informal science. Further, at a time when the majority of elementary teachers do not feel well-equipped and credible to teach science and are teaching less science (Horizon Research, 2001a), hearing from those elementary teachers that do feel confident in their ability to teach science and incorporate informal science in their teaching can inform this issue. While many teachers will take their students on at least one field trip during the year, fewer will lead effective field trips where students gain both cognitively and affectively. Many teachers will use it as a form of leisure or will not amalgamate it into their curriculum (Lessow, 1990). Support for Using Informal Science Realizing how and why these teachers continually use informal science was the focal point of this study. And directly related to this is the support they receive for using informal science. An important result of this study is that the existence of support is indispensable to whether these teachers use the resources of informal science for the gain of their students. However, it is paramount that they have support. This can have significant effects on less experienced teachers. Mullins (1998) found that a teacher support system, either from peers or administrators, makes the distinction in whether a novice teacher chooses to pursue informal science opportunities. A large portion of the required assistance for using informal science is budget. This is especially the case for taking students on field trips which is the primary way in which these teachers and most other teachers tend to use informal science (Inverness Research Associates, 1995). The cost will be used for transportation and money for entrance fees. A school (or most often, the school district) allots a certain amount of field trips based on priorities and what can be afforded. These costs can be huge obstructions to teachers use of informal science. Teachers identified transportation costs as a major limiting factor to using informal science in studies by Lessow (1990) and Michie (1998). These two studies focused on teachers who did not necessarily use informal science on a regular basis. The teachers in those studies were accompanying their grade level on their allotted yearly field trips. The teachers do not directly refer to money as a limiting factor. Kaspar (1998), in his survey of administrators and teachers in regards to the use of informal science, also found that more experienced teachers did not list administrative tasks and logistics as obstacles. The teachers are experts at navigating these barriers. While funding is always important to their use of informal science, these teachers talk more about the basis of the funding. Based on the teachers stories, they are more concerned with the emotional support they receive from these sources. This importance of administrator support is reflected in Mullins (1998) study where a lack of support by the school administration was one of the most frequently mentioned obstacles to taking field trips. This is further supported in a statement made by an experienced teacher who uses informal science regularly in her teaching. Those teachers have to somehow have an administration that understands that a field trip is not just kids getting away from school; its not a play day. The administration has to understand that it is an extension of the classroom. Five hours on a field trip can be worth far more than five hours in the classroom. Administrations and school boards have to be able to see how field trips can positively impact grades and see that its okay to be different (Mullins, 1998, p. 134). Further, administrative support has been described as being extremely important to teachers ability to effectively teach science (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996). District and state current policy on science education likely affects some teachers use of informal science. This is especially true for Betty, who expresses how the de-emphasis on science and focus on passing the state standardized tests has hindered her teaching of science and use of informal science. None of the other teachers expressed this same sort of frustration. Teaching at a school in a low-income area where passing the tests was of major concern was likely an important factor. While Greg also teaches in a high-poverty school, he is somewhat protected due to his district-approved and specially funded science-focused classroom. Without administrative support of some kind, even a highly motivated teacher will find it difficult to do the things he/she would like to do with students in science inside or outside of the clas sroom. Administrative support is narrated as a motivating factor in these teachers ability to use the resources of informal science although to different degrees among them. A teacher in a small school in a large district relies heavily on principal support, while another in a large school in a smaller district relies mainly on district level support. Administrative support is likely to be especially significant for teachers in low-income areas. Without district support of non-profit program, most teachers would have difficulty involving their class in such an extensive off-campus project with an informal science site. The success of that program has largely been due to the collaborative nature of its beginnings and the community encouragement it has received. While the fact that most teachers do not discuss it does not mean that it has not been an essential factor, it is a factor that they may have taken for granted. This is the case in the higher-income schools where there tends to be mo re parent support for these trips and projects especially in terms of funding. Parents, in turn, are able to financially support these projects and trips and since many mothers work at home, they can act as chaperones. Surprisingly, there is little in the discussions on the importance of parent support in teachers use of informal community resources. The studies of teachers use of informal science tend to focus more specifically on the field trip and not the teachers themselves (e.g. Lessow, 1991; Michie, 1998; Mullins, 1998). Further, those studies focus on either experienced science teachers from all levels of education (Mullins, 1998) or on more typical teachers on a grade level field trip (Lessow, 1991; Michie, 1998). Yet, parent support was found to be a significant authority on all of the teachers in this study. Teachers realize the significant role that parents play in making that possible. When parents are not able to pinch as much due to financial limitations or work schedules, those teachers rely more heavily on administrative and outside support and must try harder to provide informal science experiences for their students. Because the teachers in this study are often responsible for planning the field trips for their grade level, many of them express frustration at the negative attitudes of other teachers towards project involvement and science in general. On a finding supported by Michie (1998), it shows that teachers reported some resentment from other teachers if they took students on field trips. However, in Michies study, the students were in secondary school. The teachers protested because students were taken out of class or were late for another class. The teachers in this study are experienced, science-oriented, curious teachers. And unfortunately, they are not the standard in the mentoring profession. They are more like the teachers in Mullins (1998) study, even though those teachers were mostly secondary-level teachers and college professors. They were clearly passionate about teaching science. Mullins (1998) found that the more experienced teachers reported fear within the teacher to be the most significant obstacle to teachers implementing field trips. One teacher said, Its just not familiar. Teachers need someone because most of them are troubled by the idea that they are in fact clueless as to what may transpire during fieldtrips. Youre likely to do things the way youve always done them unless you have some good reason to do something differentlike if there is a real good program and someone suggests field trips and they take teachers out and then teachers say, Oh, thats not so hard, I can do this. Teachers want to; they just dont know what to do because we do so little of this in our teacher training programs (Mullins, 1998, p. 136). While the teachers in this study have ultimately been responsible for their choice to use informal science in their teaching, they are the first to admit that it has required plenty of support financial, logistical and emotional. All of these teachers claimed to require support to use informal science. It is not something they can easily do on their own. These teachers are excellent at navigating the barriers in terms of their use of informal science whether it is simply rallying parent support despite a lack of funds, holding bake sales, or finding ways to bring informal science into their classroom. And if these teachers, who are clearly exemplary science teachers, require support and encouragement, then it is likely that other teachers need even more encouragement in using informal science. As mentioned earlier, the average elementary teacher is likely to feel apprehensive about teaching science, and will lack the confidence needed to seek out informal science opportunities. The exceptional teachers in this study often found this on their own it was the emotional support that they needed in order to continue the pursuit of their science teaching goals. Based on my interpretations, providing more support for teachers in using informal science is a logical place to begin to focus energy so that more teachers are likely to look to these community resources. Highlights of the Teachers Attitudes towards Conducting Science Field Trips Field trips can be referred as one of the three ways through which science can be taught through formal classroom teaching, practical work and field trips. In the United States teachers tend to use the term field trip instead of excursion. There have been a number of challenges to define field trips. The definition used in most the researches is taken from Krepel and Duvall (1981): a trip arranged by the school and undertaken for educational purposes, in which the students go to places where the materials of instruction may be observed and studied directly in their functional setting: for example, a trip to a factory, a city waterworks, a library, a museum etc. (p. 7). The use of the term field work emphasizes some of the formal exercises which are conducted outside of the classroom, usually in biology and geology at senior high school and tertiary levels. These activities may be referred to be a subset of field trips or excursions. Much of the literature start off from museums and science centers, other noted venues such as zoos, aquariums, planetariums and field study or nature centers (see reviews such as Falk Dierking, 1992; Ramey-Gassert, Walberg Walberg, 1994; Rennie McClafferty, 1995, 1996). It often relates a range of effects on visitors, rather than students per se, Quantitative studies of the attitudes of teachers towards field trips were done and facilitated by Falk and Balling (1979), Fido and Gayford (1982) and Muse, Chiarelott and Davidman (1982). The researchers found that, in the opinion of teachers, the positive benefits derived from field trips were Ha

Euclid’s Elements and the Axiomatic Method Essay -- Mathematics Geomet

â€Å"There is no royal road to geometry.† – Euclid Euclid’s Elements are predominantly the most fundamental concepts of mathematics, but his perspective on geometry was the model for over two millennia. He is believed by many to be the leading mathematics teacher of all time. However, little is known about his life outside of mathematics, or even when he was born or when he died. According to a passage written by Proclus, Euclid probably lived after Ptolemy and the pupils of Plato, but came before Archimedes and Eratosthenes. This places his existence sometime around 300 B.C. Euclid is most famous for having set the guidelines for geometry and arithmetic written in Euclid’s Elements, a series of thirteen books in which Euclid states definitions, postulates, and theorems for mathematical concepts that are still used today. What is most remarkable about the Elements is the simple, rational, and very logical structure in which Euclid presents the accumulated geometrical knowledge from the past several centuries of Gr eek mathematicians. The manner in which the propositions have been derived is considered to be the prime model of the axiomatic method. (Hartshorne 296). Euclid’s axiomatic method works by â€Å"starting from a small number of definitions and assumptions at the beginning, [so that] all the succeeding results are proved by logical deduction from what has gone before.† In essence it is no more than â€Å"a method of proving that results are correct.† Many of Euclid’s proofs are constructions, all of which can be done using no more than a ruler and a compass and rely only on the theorems and rules of the system. Despite having developed this rigorous system of proofs, Euclid did not actually demonstrate everyt... ... of Nebraska Press, 1991. Blumenthal, Leonard M. A Modern View of Geometry. San Fransisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1961. Greenberg, Marvin Jay. Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1993. Hartshorne, Robin. Geometry, Euclid and Beyond. New York: Springer, 2000. Hofstadter, Douglas R.. Gà ¶del, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. New York: Basic Books, 1975 Narkiewicz, Wladyslaw. The Development of Prime Number Theory: From Euclid to Hardy and Littlewood. Brlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000. Singer, David A. Geometry: Plane and Fancy. New York: Springer, 1998. Internet Sources: Joyce, D. E. â€Å"Euclid’s Elements.† 1997, [online]. http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/toc.html (September 18, 2002)

Analysis Of 1984 :: essays research papers

Analysis of 1984 In 1949, an Englishman named Eric Blair published the novel 1984. Under the pseudonym, George Orwell, this author became one of the most respected and notable political writers for his time. 1984 was Orwell’s prophetic vision of the world to come. This creation of â€Å"Negative Utopia† was thoroughly convincing through Orwell’s use of setting and characterization. The theme conveyed by Orwell is that no matter how strong an individual a communist society would destroy any hope that that soul had of surviving, and that no matter the reasons told to the society, that power that the Party seeks is for no gain except for power. The story begins in April of 1984, in a grim, industrialized city called London. London was â€Å"chief city of Airstrip One, itself the third most populous of the provinces of Oceania." The dwellings that the people live in, called Victory Mansions, are depicted as â€Å"†¦rotting nineteenth-century houses, their sides shored up with balks of timber, their windows patched with cardboard and their roofs with corrugated iron†¦.† The setting creates a mood of devastation and hopelessness, fabricated by the Inner Party to suppress its followers. These people live in a society that is ruled by totalitarianism, and the aim is to give the greatest good to the smaller number. As indicated by â€Å"Cliffs Notes,† on pages 34 and 35, the main character, â€Å"Winston, like others, is expected to do his job efficiently and receive no reward but the opportunity to live austerely for the greater good and self-perpetuation of the Inner Party.† Told in third person limited, the reader is only allowed in-depth knowledge of the protagonist, Winston. Winston Smith, a thirty-nine year old man with a varicose ulcer, is a member of the Outer Party. He has â€Å"a smallish, frail figure, the meagerness of his body merely emphasized by the blue overalls which were the uniform of the Party. His hair was very fair, his face naturally sanguine, his skin roughened by course soap and blunt razor blades and the cold of the winter that had just ended.† Winston works in the Ministry of Truth, which is concerned with news, entertainment, education, and the fine arts. He is employed in the Records Department, where his tasks consist of writing and rewriting scripts to fit the present and past which unceasingly fluctuate and add to the dominion the Party had over its members, and the history they believe in.

New Cuban Cuisine :: Cuban Food

Includes Recipes New Cuban Cuisine The Cuban style of cooking is simple in concept but complex in flavor. Much Cuban food owes its heritage and tradition from Africa and neighboring, Caribbean cultures. However, there are two distinctive styles of cooking: "the classic" whose techniques and ingredients have been in use for a long time across the island, and "the new," labeled nuevo Cubano, which adds a variety of herbs and spices from other cuisine and emphasizes presentation. For example, the province of Oriente, in eastern Cuba, is well known for its contribution of spicier and more robust dishes to the cuisine of the island due to the influx of Haitian and Jamaican immigrants to the island beginning in the 1790's. In the states, Cubans, too, have opted to choose hot peppers, like blazing scotchbonnets and serranos, to prepare recipes such as black bean salsa. Cubans who arrived in the United States in the late 50's and 60's had to make some adaptations to their cooking. Many markets did not carry the vegetables, fruits or cuts of meat that they were accustomed to using in their island kitchens. Lard and olive oil, which are generally used in Cuban cooking, had to be replaced by other cooking oils. Lard was too difficult to find and olive oil was too expensive; a substitute had to be found. Cooks started using vegetable oil, which was readily available and affordable. Nowadays, safflower and canola oils have become more preferable because they are healthier. Many items are now also available in low-fat versions. The consumption of salt has too been cut back thanks to low- sodium products. Many Cubans in exile, such as my neighbor, Roca Beiro, a professional caterer whom I had the opportunity to interview, informed me that many Cubans have cut down on the starches they consume and that they try to follow a healthier diet. Due to the lack of time in their day to day life, many buy products, such as black beans, because preparing them from scratch is very time consuming. In addition, Cubans have added more salads to their diet, use less sauces, and prepare fewer potajes (stews). They have also adapted more American foods into their daily life since their children are exposed to them at school and through their acquaintance with endless chains of fast food restaurants in their communities. For example, breakfast in Cuba usually consists of cafà © con leche and tostada (coffee with milk and Cuban toast).